William Merritt Chase Mother and Child Essay Example For Students

William Merritt Chase Mother and Child Essay Chase worked in all media. He was most fluent in Oil painting and asset, but also created watercolors paintings and etchings. He is perhaps best known for his portraits, his sitters including some of the most important men and women of his time in addition to his own family. Chase often painted his wife Alice and their children, sometimes in individual portraits, and other times in scenes of domestic tranquility: at breakfast in their backyard, or relaxing at their summer home on Long Island and the children playing on the floor. Minter: Frances Hodgkin The artist has drawn mother and child together in the intimacy of an embrace. The reduction of details allows bringing together of the two figures, as does the pool of shadow bonding the faces of mother and child. Hodgkin seems to focus on the inner feelings of the mother whose eyes are closed so that we become private participants in a private moment with her baby. Frances Hodgkin (1869-1947) is one of the most highly regarded New Ze aland painters, even though her overseas reputation does not extend beyond Britain where her works are known but not seen as of great impotence. We will write a custom essay on William Merritt Chase Mother and Child specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now She gradually plopped her style and left her provincial origins behind, so that by asses and asses she was acclaimed as a leading British painter. Title: Mother and Child with a Rose Scarf Painter: Mary Cast This painting was painted near the end of Mary Cataracts career. Studies and related works reveal the painstaking method by which she composed the painting. These include three watercolors and two pencil studies for the position and interaction of the figures, an oil sketch of the childs head-length figures. The seated woman, wearing a pale green dress with a rose scarf, embraces a blue- wed child, The back of the womans head is reflected in an oval mirror above a marble-topped mahogany console. A gilded blue and white vase with pink, crimson, and yellow flowers rests on the white marble top. The figures, although posed asymmetrically, form a pyramid in the classical manner; and the interplay of vertical and horizontal lines in the background maintains the symmetry. This subtle arrangement is underscored by the curving forms of the figures and the cropped oval mirror. Mary Stevenson Cast was an American painter and printmaker. She lived much Of her adult life in Prance, where she first befriended Edgar Degas and later exhibited among the Impressionists. She often created images of the social and private lives Of women, With particular emphasis on the intimate bonds between mothers and children Painter: Pablo Picasso The almost monochromatic use of blue in this period, and its traditional association with the Madonna, are superbly combined to produce a set of haunting, almost ghostly images. Notably, many tot the Blue Period women are bowed as if carrying a heavy emotional burden. Here the handling of space has a distinctive feel. The spatial structure is clearly defined and organized in horizontal bands crossed by the vertical lines of the upright chair, This grid-work of lines is beautifully disturbed by the gentle motion of the mothers lovingly bent head kissing the chili Pablo Picasso was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, and stage designer who spent most of his adult life in Prance. Picasso Blue Period (1 901- 1904) consists of somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors. Many paintings of gaunt mothers With children date from this period. The highly expressive style is reminiscent of the 16th-century Spanish Mannerist master, II Greece (1541-1614), whom Picasso studied during his brief time in Madrid in 1896, reflected in the exaggerated, enlarged hands and the long, tapering fingers. Title: A mother feeding her Child Painter: Willie Van Marries In this traditional domestic interior, Willie treated the middle-class mother and her children as rather elegant, generalized types. .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 , .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .postImageUrl , .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 , .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451:hover , .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451:visited , .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451:active { border:0!important; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451:active , .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451 .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ucf7cd69b4c3efeff3e69c3f9341a3451:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Child Abuse EssayHe employed the refined, enamel-like painting technique associated with the artists of Elided, achieving a surface that shows no obvious traces of the brush, Willie van Marries was a Dutch painter. He was born in Elided, a son of Francs van Marries Sir. And brother of Jan van Merrier, His father, Francs van Marries, was also a leading practitioner in this field. While Francs subjects were oaten satirical, Willie responded to the fashion for more dignified, classifying subjects that emerged in the last decades of the 17th century. He opened an art academy in 1649 but it closed in 1736 because he was partially blind.

Free Essays on Sexism In Advertising

Abstract: Sexism is as pervasive in American culture as consumption is. In a society that is media driven, what is the impact of the media’s gendered language, idealized bodies and sexual stereotypes brought forth in an effort to get one to purchase a product? If sexism is truly ingrained into advertisements, what impact does this steady barrage of degradation have on the viewer, the intended audience, and more importantly on the consumption patterns? The hypothesis that sexism in ads leads to greater attention to the ads, as well negative feelings from the objects of the ads holds true. This is likely because males are the center of the advertising community, and women are disenfranchised from being the intended receiver of advertising. Sexism, defined as â€Å"behavior, conditions, or attitudes that foster stereotypes of social roles based on sex†, is as pervasive in American culture as consumption is. In a society that is media driven, what is the impact of the media’s gendered language, idealized bodies and sexual stereotypes brought forth in an effort to get one to purchase a product? If sexism is truly ingrained into advertisements, what impact does this steady barrage of degradation have on the viewer, the intended audience, and more importantly on the consumption patterns? Sexism in advertising This is a culture driven by entertainment and media. The average child in the United States watches over 1095 hours of television a year (Hager, 1997), with over 360 hours of commercial programming included in that figure. In a study of the existing three television networks in 1987, there were over 65,000 sexual references broadcast that year during prime time afternoon and evening hours. This averaged 27 sexual messages per hour (Key, 1989). Of these ads, a large number will feature slogans such as â€Å"Kid tested, mother approved†, â€Å"Choosy moms choose Jif†, or â€Å"This is not your father’s Oldsmobile†. These gendered... Free Essays on Sexism In Advertising Free Essays on Sexism In Advertising Abstract: Sexism is as pervasive in American culture as consumption is. In a society that is media driven, what is the impact of the media’s gendered language, idealized bodies and sexual stereotypes brought forth in an effort to get one to purchase a product? If sexism is truly ingrained into advertisements, what impact does this steady barrage of degradation have on the viewer, the intended audience, and more importantly on the consumption patterns? The hypothesis that sexism in ads leads to greater attention to the ads, as well negative feelings from the objects of the ads holds true. This is likely because males are the center of the advertising community, and women are disenfranchised from being the intended receiver of advertising. Sexism, defined as â€Å"behavior, conditions, or attitudes that foster stereotypes of social roles based on sex†, is as pervasive in American culture as consumption is. In a society that is media driven, what is the impact of the media’s gendered language, idealized bodies and sexual stereotypes brought forth in an effort to get one to purchase a product? If sexism is truly ingrained into advertisements, what impact does this steady barrage of degradation have on the viewer, the intended audience, and more importantly on the consumption patterns? Sexism in advertising This is a culture driven by entertainment and media. The average child in the United States watches over 1095 hours of television a year (Hager, 1997), with over 360 hours of commercial programming included in that figure. In a study of the existing three television networks in 1987, there were over 65,000 sexual references broadcast that year during prime time afternoon and evening hours. This averaged 27 sexual messages per hour (Key, 1989). Of these ads, a large number will feature slogans such as â€Å"Kid tested, mother approved†, â€Å"Choosy moms choose Jif†, or â€Å"This is not your father’s Oldsmobile†. These gendered...

Environmental sustainability Journal questions Essay

Environmental sustainability Journal questions - Essay Example Recreation fishing is a relatively recent idea although continues to gain dominance. Commercial fishing, on the contrary is exploitative and deeply rooted since it started long before recreational fishing. Confusion emanates from what is the scale of consideration that separates the two concepts. The extent of diversity to consider when outlining the distinction between the two practices remains a serious conflict. Although commercial fishing entails a high level harvesting of fish species, recreational fishing continue to increase regarding the scale of exploitation of fish species (Cooke & Cowx, 2006). It, therefore, remains confusing to determine the level of exploitation that defines the two concepts. Another conflicting area of consideration is the selection of fish that the two should distinctly have focus. Undefined categories of species that commercial fishing and recreational fishing should concentrate on remains to be a source of conflicting ideas. The technology applied in the two fishing techniques should be different. Conventionally, recreational fishing should not apply technologies that involve high extraction levels. This has not been so though since recreational fishing technologies tend to improve to be more extractive than expected. This is a source of conflict in marine resource conservation. ... Environmental sustainability as a focus of sustainable building entails improving the energy efficiency of buildings. Installation of solar panels in buildings in buildings continues to gain dominance as a sustainable building strategy. Solar panels utilize solar energy. This is a renewable energy source, a factor that renders the use of solar panels efficient as a source of energy in buildings. Sustainability proponents advocate for the adoption of renewable energy sources as contrary to non-renewable sources. Houses with installed solar panels use minimal energy from the main grid since they utilize solar power. Electrical energy converted by the solar panels is useful for heating and running in-house machines. This saves on electricity tapped from the main grid. The effectiveness of energy conversion by solar panels by reduces from the influence of dusts. Detergents used to clean the dust may cause environmental effects. The introduction of panels that have self-cleaning mechanism s also increases the energy efficiency. Besides promoting energy efficiency, self-cleaning panels also reduce the use of cleaning detergents that may have associated environmental effects. The use of solar panels as a source of energy is a move to promote the utilization of renewable energy. Renewable energy use is essential among the various strategies to promote sustainability. Question 6 Sustainable management of waste is vital engagement in promoting sustainability. Waste from minerals and mining industry contribute to a high percentage of wastes. Waste from demolition and construction contribute to a higher pollution of the environment. Municipal waste management strategies are critical as a development area to promote

Merger and Acquisition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Merger and Acquisition - Essay Example Johnson & Johnson, on the other hand, is one of the biggest names in the healthcare industry, serving customers around the globe with its baby care products, medical devices, medicines, body nutrition and other day to day consumer products (Jnj.com, 2013). The announcement by Johnson & Johnson had created waves in corporate world; firstly, this marked the biggest acquisition in this industry, and secondly it had multiple-fold effects disturbing many organizations within and outside the industry. Strategic Justification Johnson & Johnson was observed to be laying great emphasis on healthcare sector in recent years, and wanted to shift its focus from consumer products to healthcare products. Thus, in the words of CEO of Johnson & Johnson, acquisition of Synthes was all part of the big plan for Johnson & Johnson: becoming most wide-range orthopedics and neurological business, serving customers worldwide in medical industry. This has enabled Johnson & Johnson to be the absolute provider of all related services in supply chain of orthopedics with a comprehensive coverage for all kinds of products and services. Synthes makes substantial profits in developing markets and third world nations. Therefore, the acquisition decision was in line with Johnson & Johnson’s long-term strategy to promote well being of public, especially in underdeveloped and developing areas, through innovative and healthier products, putting the company in a stronger position than before. It also provided benefits of economies of scale, synergy and bulk buying to the group as they were engaged in similar businesses and therefore idle capacities and resources could now be better utilized, leading to efficient or full employment of factors of production and fall in unit costs as fixed costs were spread over larger number of units being produced (invertor.jnj.com, 2012). Regulatory implications When deciding on acquisition of Synthes, Johnson & Johnson had to consider all legal complications involved; one of them being prohibition of simultaneous holdings in Synthes and DePuy orthopedics subsidiary. Johnson & Johnson and Synthes have been direct competitors in certain sectors of medical equipment and surgical treatment goods and therefore, Federal Trade Commission intervened to protect public interests (reuters.com, 2012). Antitrust regulations governed by the European Union and U.S. regulators were required to be satisfied and complied with to make due diligence effective. Consequently, it had to divest its stakes from DePuy in order to be able to make acquisition of Synthes legally possible. It accepted offer from Biomet, a company involved in surgical products and instruments to sell the subsidiary for $280 million, receivable in cash (Nj.com, 2013). On part of Synthes, there were past accusations regarding one of its business units, Norian, of conducting trials to promote its product without permission of relevant authorities. The company ended up paying a penalty and damages to another company, amounting to $22 million. It agreed to dispose of its unit which committed offence previously at its acquisition date (Bloomberg, 2013). Apart from mentioned implications, it was very vital to account for the deferred taxation repercussions involved in due diligence activities, including consideration of accumulated tax losses and deferred tax assets that could be utilized for tax avoidance tactics.

Dramatic tension for the audience Essay Example for Free

Dramatic tension for the audience Essay In the play, A View From The Bridge, Arthur Miller gave the audience an impression that the Italian immigrants werent welcome to the USA. The scene is set in New York and it relates to six main characters, who are all individuals and play unique roles. Arthur Miller was born on October 17th in 1915 in New York City. He was a prominent figure in American literature and his career as a writer spanned over seven decades. He is considered by audiences as one of Americas greatest play writers, and his plays are widely recognised throughout the world. The play is set in Red Hook. The main focus and stage is the Carbones living and dining room. Alfieri thinks that the public do not appreciate lawyers or priests because he says You see how uneasily they nod to me? Thats because I am a lawyer. In this neighbourhood to meet a lawyer or a priest on the street is unlucky. Were only thought of in connection with disasters, and theyd rather not get too close. A slight of distrust lies in the neighbourhood because he can sense that the law wasnt an amicable idea since the Greeks were beaten. People have told him that the neighbourhood lack an element of elegance and glamour. The neighbourhood consisted of longshoremen and their wives and fathers and grandfathers and poor people. Red Hook was considered quite a dangerous place but now its quite civilized, quite American. Alfieri can foretell the rest of story as he tells the audience that they should watch the situation run its bloody course, and followed that by introducing Eddie Carbone by saying this ones name was Eddie Carbone. The way Arthur Miller uses Alfieri to say this ones, shows that Alfieri has seen this many times before and is giving us a hint that the play is not going to end well. Eddie is introduced on stage by pitching coins with the men, in which he highlighted from them, He is forty-a husky, slightly overweight longshoreman. When Eddie enters his apartment and meets Catherine, there is quite a friendly atmosphere but this changes quickly when Eddie criticizes the way Catherine walks and her appearance. The conversation ends when Eddie says that Beatrices cousins are coming. Here we can get the feeling that Eddie has undiscovered sexual feelings and is very possessive over Catherine. While the family were waiting for Beatrices cousins, Eddie is telling the story of Vinny Bolzano. The story has a significant importance because this play also has a similar story as Bolzano. Miller uses Eddie as the person who informs the immigration about Beatrices cousins (just like the young boy did to his uncle in Bolzanos story). Marco appears to be suspicious initially. He is quite stiff towards Eddie and gives him control of when he requires them to leave. There is an instant reaction where Rodolfo is introduced, we can see Catherine is attracted by his appearance, she asked him many questions like How come hes so dark and youre so light, Rodolfo (you can see how she just addressed the question directly to Rodolfo). Catherine also is astonished, as she said to Beatrice Hes practically blond! . Eddie however assumes that he is homosexual because he has blond hair and sings the song Paper Doll. Eddie doesnt understand the law because he doesnt see the need of obtaining evidence to prove Rodolfo guilty. He just assumes that Rodolfo wants to marry Catherine for the right to stay and become an American citizen. It is difficult for Eddie to express his emotions because he has intimate feelings towards Catherine. Alfieris advice to Eddie was to inform the immigration as to how Beatrices cousins entered the country illegally. Initially Eddie is shocked at the advice and says Oh, Jesus, no, I wouldnt do nothin about that. Alfieri also advised Eddie to learn to let Catherine go. He says The child has to grow up and go away, and the man has to learn to forget. Eddie does not want to let Catherine go. This could result in two endings, either Eddie snitches on Rodolfo and Marco or lets his niece live her life the way she wants to. Catherine starts off a conversation about the places where Marco and Rodolfo have been to. Eddie doesnt seem too convinced when Catherine says theyve been to Africa, and says its true Eddie. Miller uses his stage directions to show that Eddie is only asking Marco about the places they have visited. Then the conversation diverts to Catherine asking Eddie about oranges and lemons growing on trees. Eddie replies directly to Marco. He becomes very aggressive and rude when Rodolfo intervenes. Eddie gets very hostile and snaps back at Rodolfo by saying I know lemons are green, for Christs sake, you see them in the store theyre green sometimes. I said oranges they paint, I didnt say nothin about lemons. . Another incident rises when Eddie has a conversation about how he can teach boxing to Rodolfo. Eddie picks on Rodolfo and tries to intimidate and patronise him. They both throw in some light punches but Eddie gets carried away and grazes Rodolfo. Catherine is astonished and Eddie replies Why? I didnt hurt him. Did I hurt you kid? . Marco had realised that Eddie was bothered by Rodolfo. Marco showed his strength towards Eddie by raising the chair over his head. He does this to make Eddie aware that if anything happens to Rodolfo, Eddie will have to pay the consequences. Arthur Miller shows that Marco has had enough and understands whats going on, the stage directions describes Marco with a strained tension gripping his eyes and jaw, his neck stiff, he also used a simile the chair raised like a weapon over Eddies head. Eddie then realises what Marco meant, his grin vanishes as he absorbs his looks. . This shows us that Marcos hamartia is Rodolfo.

Choice of leadership styles

Choice of leadership styles In the process of certain incidents with in the group of people whether it formed temporarily or permanent which requires someone to lead or conduct the group of people in a way that drives towards right direction. For any organization it is difficult to run a business without a leader. It is alike driving a car without knowing the road. The person who is appointed or selected as a leader needs to have certain influential skills which cause the organization to follow. To be a leader the individual must be able to induce followers to act for certain goals that represent the values and motivations the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations of both leaders and followers (Burns, 1978). There are some differences and similarities between the companies followed leadership style. It depends on structure of a company, area of a business and other factors which would influence the leadership style of the organization. Managers need to have certain skills to run their business in any situation and need to reflect feedback gathered from other people, on their business process and sometimes they need to delegate someone to complete the specific task within a particular time frame and the outcome would show how successful and inspirational managers they are. 1. Identify factors in organisations that would influence choice of leadership styles and explain why leadership styles are likely to positively affect team building. Mainly there are four basic factors which influence leadership style in certain organization (US. Army, 1983), which are leader itself, follower, situation and communication. Leader: The knowledge, personality, beliefs, skills, ethics and values of the leaders (his/her) will affect the leadership style. The leader will reflect his or her personal characters on the process of strategy or way of doing. Followers: Any organization consists of numbers of followers with different backgrounds and personalities. Leaders should use the most appropriate strategy in a way that followers to respond their best and they need to know their people well. Situation: Leaders stay had to choose the strategy in many different situations. Every strategy does not work for every situation. The one strategy you used in one situation may not work for in other. Communication: The way of communication shows the relationship between the leader and an employee. The relationship between leader and an employee affect the leading style. Adams Equity Theory: According to this theory, when fair balance between employees inputs and outputs settled productivity of work is to improve with motivated employees. Employee Inputs include: Effort Loyalty Hard Work Commitment Skill Ability Adaptability Flexibility Tolerance Determination Enthusiasm Trust in superiors Support of colleagues Personal sacrifice, etc. Employee Outputs include: Financial rewards (salary, benefits, perks, etc.) Intangibles that typically include: Recognition Reputation Responsibility Sense of Achievement Praise Stimulus Sense of Advancement/Growth Job Security When employees think their inputs are more than their outputs, some employees are to work hard to bring the balance whereas some may feel de-motivated and could look for another alternative employment. Therefore manager needs to keep the balance of input and outputs as fair as possible. In the practical life these inputs and outputs of employees are balanced differently, based on organizational structures and its management style. There are five kinds of leadership styles can found in organization which are: Autocratic, Collaborative (Participatory), Democratic and Laissez-Faire. Autocratic leadership style: Manager has as much power of authority as possible and does not seek input from team. Employees are expected to do their work as whatever manager said. Also this type of leadership is likely to reduce motivation of employees. Collaborative (Participatory) Leadership style: This leadership style is the most effective one for team building. Every one from each department, appointed for certain task within the organization and encourages creativity, productivity and responsibility. Democratic Leadership Style: Managers inform their employees for everything and encourages employees to participate in a decision making process through gathering information, suggestions and ideas from members and employees. Laissez-Faire: Managers leave their employees free for decision making, determining goals and objective and all authority is given to employees. Among these leadership styles most appropriate one for to create effective team building is the collaborative leadership style. For instance, at STARBUCKS, the managers wanted to develop a deep relationship with their employees in order to achieve their trust from trust other employee carer UNIONS. Starbucks has increased the employees outputs to motivate their employees such as providing them opportunities to practice their skill, allow them to contribute to organization, improved the working condition, created a part of the organization environment and recognised employees achievement awards like; Warm Regards, MUG Award and Spirit of Starbucks Award. When employees achieved their task or exceeding the targets, they are to get motivated and rewarded when. 2. With reference to a relevant leadership model, explain how an organisations working practices could be improved, by collecting feedback from others. : Any organization is in battle to continuous improvement of its product and service. One of Japanese most famous management model is KAIZEN. Kaizen means on going improvement involving everyone, top managements, managers and workers. Kaizen refers to removal of 3MUs (Muda- waste, Muri-strain, Mura- discrepancy) and application of 5Ss (Seri- straighten up, Seiton- Put things in order, Seiso- clean up, Seiketsu- personal cleanliness, Shitsuke-discipline) at any level of the organization in order to improve the process of the organization continually. When any problem is seen in the organization, it demands some changes for improvement and as a matter of fact only the honest and realistic feedback would affect to bring sustainable growth and change in the organization. Gathering feedback from others is one of the most important techniques for both individual itself and for the company to improve its ongoing performance. The feedbacks can be gathered through different ways such as surveys, suggestion box, face to face conversation, telephone, online comments etc. The output of the company could be more effective, when managers reflect the gathered feedback information on their decision making process. Employees are one of the main factors for operating business and managers are able to know how employees think, feel and behave, through a relevant survey. The employee attitudes, opinions and suggestions in the survey would provide opportunity for managers to see the organization from different angle. The survey should aim to understand what makes their employees motivated or discouraged and what factors that can provide a job satisfaction or dissatisfaction, what do employees think about current situation of the company, what changes they want, then managers would be aware of the problem and they would be able to know what steps needs to be taken and which helps the company to operate in more productive and profitable ways. The most recent and effective appraisal, for individual and organization is the 360 degree feedback and which has widely implemented in numbers of organizations. 360 Degree or multi-rater feedback is a process which is a tool of individual or organizational self assessment through multi raters feedback and anybody who is related to individual or to the organization can be involved in the process such as managers, direct reports, clients, customers, suppliers etc. In this process you are not assessed by one person like only by your manager, you are also assessed and rated on your performance by other people who know about you and your work well. Your own completed assessment will be compared with others opinion and feedbacks and the result will be much more realistic and objective as assessment involved large number of raters than as involved only one rater. When this process implemented well and effectively, which will help the organization move towards bright and successful future. 3. Explain why it is so important to make effective and efficient use of your teams knowledge and skills while planning to achieve work objectives More or less someones help encourages an achievement of success for any reason. No one could be successful without receiving any help from others. Specially, a manager in any organization works with other people as a team for a certain goal and whose success can not be measured on its own, without his/her employees. There are numbers of tasks need to be completed by team members to reach the set objectives. However it does not mean that everyone can do whatever they want. As a manager it is important to use knowledge and skills of his/her employees, in effective and efficient way. Manager needs to consider and identify which employee is good at what and what skills of employee need to do what task, during the planning and task allocating process. When manager identifies the strength and weakness of the employees it will be easier for the manager to delegate the task. If managers delegate the tasks without having any idea of their employee skills and knowledge, a team can face quality and cost related problems and it could cause not to achieve the set objective on time. The outcomes are as written bellow when managers use skills and knowledge of their employee in a right way: Save time to accomplish a task on time A good quality of work Save cost and money Ready for next similar task, since manager knows who good at what 4. Identify and describe one barrier to delegation in the workplace and one mechanism to support delegation in the workplace Delegation is a part of a managers job and which gives responsibility, authority and accountability to employees and also gives opportunity to show their skills and talent to their managers. Some managers avoid delegating works because of mistrust and try to complete the whole work on his/her own. It brings workloads and stress to the manager and even can cause to failure of work. Therefore delegation of work is useful for manager him/herself, employees and for the company as a whole. However there are some advantages and disadvantages of delegation. Advantages of delegation: Efficient use of time and skills Provides professional growth opportunities Promotes teamwork Increase productivity Develop trust with your employees Save money Gives employees pride in their work and improve job satisfaction Disadvantages of delegation: Delegated work may not be done correctly Employees may focus more on their own work than delegated work Employees may not be sure who to consult because of unclear structure of authority The numbers of obstacle can appear in front of delegation though the barrier that seen most frequent is the own attitudes and traits of delegators or managers themselves. Delegation means allowing someone to do something through giving an authority to make their own decision to complete the certain task. The main barrier appears when the manager to decide whether to delegate or not and the reasons which influence managers to not to delegate are, having a mistrust with their employees and having a fear of loosing their authority to others. If manager do not trust his/her employees skills or having a fear of loosing his/her authority to someone, manager would prefer to do it on his/her own, rather than delegating to someone. Even though there are some factors which push managers to delegate the task to someone, which are; size of organization, more demanding tasks to complete, task complexity, qualities of subordinates and importance of the duties and decision. These supporting factors are more situational and the most influential one, which supports the delegation, is having workloads in a workplace. When managers have to complete massive works in a short time, they will prefer to delegate someone to complete the task behalf of them. Otherwise managers can not be complete their task on time and which could influence their work performance negatively. 5. Explain one technique that could be used to monitor the outcomes of delegation in the workplace A manager as a delegator needs to make sure that delegated tasks are being done correctly and effectively before its accomplishment. Every tasks need to be completed in a certain period of time and employees supposed to be aware of what work needs to be done, how it should be done, whom they are going to consult when problem appears and what outcomes do managers expect. If manager re-inform about deadlines and establish checkpoints and ask members if there is any problem or if they need any help to support them for finishing the relevant tasks which would help managers to get successful outcomes from their staffs. However the one thing that managers always need to remember is not to interfere too much to their employees work where you delegated. Because, it could influence employees decision, to accomplish the task on their own way and which can not be effective when something has done under someones pressure. Conclusion: The numbers of organizations are being established day by day and they would choose their own management style adapting to their business situation. There is no such leadership style, which is always successful and its effectiveness would depends on what organizational culture they have and what type of business they run. Managers need to have certain influential leadership skills which are to accomplish the certain task successfully through making their employees motivated. On the other hand, managers decision will not be right all the time, sometimes they need to listen to other peoples opinion, suggestion and ideas and should reflect those things on their decision making process to reach a successful outcomes.

Regions Chart

PoliticalAs a result of the growth of industry and social change, political views often clashed. Labor unions formed first in the Northeast. Miners and steelworkers were some of the first workers to use the strike as a bargaining tool against business owners. Laws that allowed segregation and discrimination made it hard for southern African Americans to enjoy the improved transportation of the Second Industrial Revolution. Discriminatory laws and riots due to increased tension between immigrants and white settlers. Labor unions were active in the cities. Social reform movements arose in Ohio and Illinois. In rural areas, farmers were also politically active. It was a region in which social and political campaigns took root. SocialThe growth of industry highlighted the gap between rich and poor. Wealthy entrepreneurs wanted to increase profits. Workers wanted better wages and working conditions. The post-Civil War South continued to have problems related to race. New laws regarding se gregation made it hard for southern African Americans to enjoy the improved and rebuilt transportation. The willingness of the immigrants from China to work for lower wages and the cultural differences between them and the white settlers led to friction. Like the Northeast, the Midwest had waves of immigrants come to its cities. The gap between rich and poor was a source of friction. Economic orType of EconomyThe Northeast remained the leading industrial region in the Second Industrial Revolution. New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania produced more than 85 percent of all U.S. industrial products in 1890. The war ended slavery, which took away the South's main source of labor. Although it remained mostly agricultural, the South began developing its timber industry. Coal and iron deposits in the southern Appalachian Mountains gave rise to steel  production in Birmingham, Alabama. Agriculture became more efficient in the Midwest and also encouraged settlers to obtain land in the West. However, the sparse population of the West did not support much industrial growth, and the economy continued to be based on natural resources. This region experienced economic growth in both farming and manufacturing. The upper Midwest states became centers of industry and a hub for shipping and transport.Population ChangeThe rapid growth of a manufacturing economy created a need for workers. Cities in the Northeast became destinations for the immigrants that came to the United States. By 1870 about 15 percent of the U.S. population was foreign born. About one of every five industrial workers was an immigrant. Most of these immigrants settled in the Northeast. Many African Americans left the South to work in new factories in the North and Midwest. There they had a better chance of earning good wages and improving their economic and social standing. Immigrants from China arrived in the West looking for jobs on the expanding railroads. The thinly spread population of the West di d not support much industrial growth. Cities grew rapidly, attracting large numbers of immigrants. Chicago, Illinois became one of the nation's largest cities during this period. In 1860, the city's population was about 110,000. In 1890, more than one million people lived there.TransportationAlmost 200,000 miles of railroad line connected cities in the Northeast by 1900. Most industry and rail transportation were destroyed during the Civil War. By the 1880s, however, the South had begun to rebuild. The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 linked the coasts of United States. Railways transported natural resources like timber and gold from the West to the East The development of railways made Chicago a gateway between the East and West. Trains carried goods from eastern manufacturers, to be shipped north to the Upper Midwest and west across the Great Plains.Explain how the Second Industrial Revolution affected the North, South, West, and Midwest. Which region would you have preferred to live in during this period? Why?The Second Industrial Revolution affected the North, South, West, and Midwest with changes such as population, transportation, and economy changes. The rapid growth of the manufacturing economy in each region created a need for workers attracting many immigrants. By 1870 about 15 percent of the U.S. population was foreign born and, about one of every five industrial workers was an immigrant. In addition, each region also developed and improved their transportation system, usually, by railroads. These railroads connected cities and were used to transport natural resources and goods from manufacturers to other places.Moreover, each region had their own type of economy. The northeast remained the leading industrial region and the south and west maintained a developing agricultural economy but, the west’s sparse population did not support much industrial growth. Also, the Midwest experienced economic growth in both farming and man ufacturing.Furthermore, if I had to live in a certain region during the Second Industrial Revolution period I would prefer to live in the northwest region which was the leading industrial region in both the First Industrial Revolution and Second Industrial Revolution. The rapid growth of the economy begged for more workers so it would have been easy for me to find a job and provide for my family. The northeast region benefited, improved, flourished more than any other region in both Industrial Revolutions and I would have wanted to be a part of that experience.

Cat in the Rain – Woman the Inequality

CHAPTER TWO SEMANTICS AND STRUCTURE OF VERBAL PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS The subject matter of our graduation paper is semantics and structure of verbal phraseological units . The English language is extremely rich in verbal phraseological units due to their grammatical features and the diversity of their structural types. It is known that the verb is endowed with the richest grammatical categories in the system of the parts of speech. The same grammatical features pass from the verb to verbal idioms. Becoming a component of an idiom, the verb endows its idiom with its grammatical and functional characteristic features.The classification system of phraseological units suggested by Professor A. V. Koonin is the latest outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. The classification is based on the combined structural – semantic principle and it also considers the quotient of stability of phraseological units ( ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , , 2008 ). Phraseological unit s are subdivided into the following four classes according to their function in communication determined by their structural – semantic characteristics. 1.Nominative phraseological units are represented by word – groups, including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear. The first class also includes word- groups with a predicative structure, such as the crow flies, and, also, predicative phrases of the type see how the land lies, ships that pass in the night. 2. Nominative – communicative phraseological units include word- groups of the type to break the ice – the ice is broken, verbal word- groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice. 3.Phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional word- groups. 4. Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings. Thus, verbal idioms belong to the class of nomin ative and nominative – communicative phraseological units, due to the fact that some of them are word – combinations, while others can be both word –combinations and sentences. Word- groups may be generally described through the pattern of arrangement of the constituent members. The term â€Å" syntactic structure â€Å" implies the description of the order and arrangement of member – words as parts of speech.We may, for instance, describe the word – group as made up of an Adjective and a Noun ( clever man, red flower, etc. ), a Verb – a Noun ( take books, build houses , etc. ) , or a Noun, a Preposition and a Noun ( a touch of colour, a matter of importance, etc. ). The syntactic structure of the nominal groups â€Å" clever man† and â€Å" red flower† may be represented as A+ N, that of the verbal groups â€Å" take books† and â€Å" build houses† as V+ N. These formulas can be used to describe all the possibl e structures of English word – groups. We can say , e. . , that the verbal groups comprise the following structural formulas: V+N ( to build houses), V+ prp +N ( to rely on somebody ), V+ N+ prp +N (to hold something against somebody ), V+N+V ( to make somebody work), V+V (to get to know ). The structure of word-groups may be also described in relation to the head – word, e. g. the structure of the same verbal groups ( to build houses, to rely on somebody ) is represented as to build +N, to rely +on +N. In this case it is usual to speak of the patterns of word – groups but not of formulas.The term â€Å" pattern â€Å" implies that we are speaking of the structure of the word – group in which a given word is used as its head. The interdependence of the pattern and meaning of head – words can be easily perceived by comparing word – groups of different patterns in which the same head-word is used. For example, in verbal groups the head †“ word mean is semantically different in the patterns mean +iV ( mean something ) and mean + V ( inf. ) ( mean to do something). Three patterns with the verb get as the head – word represent three different meanings of this verb, e. g. get +N ( get a letter, information, money, etc. , get +to +N( get to London, to the Institute, etc. ) , get + N+V (inf. ) (get somebody to come, to do the work ). Broadly speaking we may conclude that as a rule the difference in the meaning of the head – word is conditioned by a difference in the pattern of the word – group in which this word is used. In the same way as we speak of word patterns, the structure of phraseological units is also based on certain patterns. We are going to focus on verbal phraseological units which compared to free word –groups discussed above have structural stability, semantic unity and figurativeness.The structure of the English phraseological units is much more variegated. Within English ve rbal idioms the following syntactical relations are observed: 1. Verb + direct object 1) To beat the air – to do nothing 2) To crack the whip – Coll. To use one’s power or influence over other people in a vigorous or severe manner; be in control 3) To ride the storm – to control or deal with a situation of great disorder or violence 4) To bell the cat – Coll, rather old- fash . To take a risk or do something that is dangerous, esp. for the good of others 5) To give the chop – Coll. To dismiss someone from his job ; to destroy a plan, idea 2.Verb + prepositional object 1) To clutch at a straw – Coll. To be willing to try anything to get out of a dangerous, difficult situation 2) To strain at a gnat – Not fml. To trouble oneself about a matter of no importance 3) To cut with a knife – Not fml. To be able to feel the emotions and opinions of the people in a room, esp. when these are unpleasant 4) To play with fire – Not fml. To take risks, esp. when these are foolish and unnecessary 5) To fall on deaf ears – to be or remain unnoticed or disregarded 3. Verb + direct object + prepositional object 1) To kill two birds with one stone – to fulfill two purposes with one action ) To keep the wolf from the door – Coll. Often humor. To prevent hunger 3) To put the kibosh on – Coll. To spoil or prevent a plan from happening or being successful 4) To get a kick from – Coll. To get a feeling of pleasure, excitement, or enjoyment from 5) To get one’s hands on –Not fml. To get hold of something or someone violently; seize 4. Verb + indirect object + direct object 1) To give his head – Not fml. To allow someone do what he wants 2) To give her the gun – Coll. To increase speed when driving a vehicle, esp. a car 3) To show a clean pair of heels – Not fml. To run away as fast as possible from someone or something ) To do justice – to sh ow the true value of a person or thing; treat a person or thing as he /it deserves 5. Verb + adverb 1) To sweep under the carpet – Not fml. To hide or forget something shameful, unpleasant 2) To drive into a corner – Not fml. To put a person into a difficult or awkward situation 3) To throw down the gauntlet – to invite someone to fight, argue, defend himself or his opinions 4) To sit on one’s hands – Not fml. To do nothing; be inactive 6. Verb + object + adverb 1) To build castles in the air – to have dreams, hopes, or desires that are unlikely to become reality ) To have a finger in every pie – Not fml. To be concerned in some way with a large number of different plans, arrangements at the same time 3) To keep one’s finger on the pulse – Coll. To know exactly what is happening in an organization, society, etc. 4) To have one foot in the grave – Coll, often humor. To be very old or ill; be near death 5) To have a frog in one’s throat – Not fml. To be unable to speak clearly because one needs to cough or has a sore throat From the point of view of their grammatical structure verbal idioms are divided into the following groups: ) To be functioning as a link verb and the whole unit expresses state, e. g: 1) To be on a friendly footing with somebody – to behave towards or deal with each other in a friendly way 2) To be the tops – Coll. To be the best of one’s kind; be of very high quality 3) To be between the devil and the deep sea – having two possible courses of action open to one, both of which are dangerous, unpleasant 4) To be one jump ahead of – Not fml. To foresee what a person is likely to do next or what is about to happen and be prepared for it; to keep slightly ahead of something 5) To be at loggerheads – to disagree or quarrel with someoneIdioms beginning with the verb to have also belong here, e. g: 1) To have someone’s blood on one’s hands – to be responsible for someone’s death 2) To have on one’s brain – Not fml. To be continuously thinking or worrying about something 3) To have a maggot in one’s brain – Coll. rare. To have strange ideas or desires 4) To have light fingers – Not fml. To have an ability or a tendency to steal things 5) To have a brain like a sieve – Not fml. To be unable to remember things correctly or keep information in one’s mind b) Idioms beginning with other notional verbs and the whole unit expresses action, e. g: ) To gain ground – to advance, make progress; become more important or powerful 2) To lead a charmed life – Not fml. To have continuous good fortune in avoiding accidents or harm 3) To hit the hay – Coll, To lie down to sleep; go to bed 4) To make a clean breast of smth. – Not fml. To admit to something Verbal phraseological units may be classified in accordance with their structure into : a) One – summit phraseological units They are composed of a notional and a form word , and have one semantic centre , such as : 1) To ask for it – Coll. To behave in a way that causes trouble, anger, etc. , esp. hat causes another person to be violent 2) To come it over – Coll. To show by one’s behavior that one believes oneself to be better than someone 3) To have it in for – Coll. To be determined to cause harm or injury to a person, organization, etc. 4) To jump to it – Coll. To show immediate and rapid willingness, e. g. to obey an order or request b) Many summit phraseological units They are composed of two or more notional words and form words ,and have two or more semantic centres , such as : 1) To take the bull by the horns – Coll. To deal with something difficult boldly or without delay 2) To ill the goose that laid the golden eggs – to destroy the chief cause of one’s profit or success 3 ) To know on which side one’s bread is buttered – Coll. To know what to do in order to be liked or approved of by the people in power 4) To have a millstone round one’s neck – to cause much and continuous trouble to someone 5) To get hold of the wrong end of the stick – Coll. To misunderstand something completely Academician V. V. Vinogradov spoke of the semantic change in phraseological units as â€Å" a meaning resulting from a peculiar chemical combination of words†.This seems a very apt comparison because in both cases between which the parallel is drawn an entirely new quality comes into existence ( ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , , 2008 ). The factors accounting for semantic changes may be subdivided into two groups: Linguistic and Extra-linguistic causes . By extra – linguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of speech community, changes in economic and social structure, changes of ideas, scientific concepts, way of lif e and other spheres of human activities as reflected in word meanings.Although objects, concepts, etc. change in the course of time , yet in many cases the words which denote them are retained, but the meaning of such words is changed. E. g: The phraseological unit â€Å" blow one’s own trumpet – Coll. To praise one’s own ambitions â€Å" arose from the fact that in medieval times heralds welcomed the sound of the trumpet of the knights, coming into the competition. When the social practice had disappeared and the phrase was reinterpreted, the communication between the meaning of the phraseological unit and the literal meanings of its components disrupted.Now the phraseological unit â€Å" blow one’s trumpet† and variable word –combination â€Å"blow one’s trumpet – to play on one’s trumpet † are homonyms. Another phraseological unit is â€Å"show the white feather – Not fml,( becoming rare) to reveal on e’s fear or cowardly feelings. Referring to a cock ( a male chicken) that has been bred for fighting as a sport. If the chicken had any white feathers, it was thought to be badly bred. The phraseological unit â€Å"show the white feather† had spawned in England and Australia, the custom of which is to send a white feather to faces, evading from military services.There are phrasal verbs specific to the English language ,e. g: 1) Give up – to leave ; abandon 2) Let on – to pretend; to tattle. With regard to the nature of these verbal complexes, opinions of linguists differ. They called them compound verbs, verbs with a postposition, postpositive verb with a prefix. These verbs in the English language are usually called phrasal verbs. Recently, a successful term post-verbs has appeared for the second component of these formulations. What is a post-verb? It cannot be a preposition, as it is used only in the verbal complex, and unlike the preposition it is alw ays under the stress.It cannot be an adverb , as it is not marked as a part of the sentence. Consequently, it cannot be a prepositional adverb. To understand the nature of a post-verb , we should mention Smirnitsky’s important statement, that post-verbs are words, as it combines with verbal components, having a paradigm of changing words. Thus, all verbal complexes â€Å" give in, give up, let on , take in † and so on, are stable phrases. The semantic shift affecting phraseological units does not consist in a mere change of meanings of each separate constituent part of the unit.The meanings of the constituents merge to produce an entirely new meaning : e. g. to have a bee in one’s bonnet means â€Å" to have an obsession about something; to be eccentric or even a little mad â€Å". The humorous metaphoric comparison with a person who distracted by a bee continually buzzing under his cap has become erased and half-forgotten, and the speakers using the expressio n hardly think of bees or bonnets but accept it in its transferred sense : â€Å" obsessed, eccentric â€Å". That is what is meant when phrasological units are said to be characterized by semantic unity.It is this feature that makes phraseological units similar to words : both words and phraseological units possess semantic unity. Most Russian scholars today accept the semantic criterion of distinguishing phraseological units from free word – groups as the major one and base their research work in the field of phraseology on the definition of a phraseological unit offered by Professor A. V. Koonin: â€Å"A phraseological unit is a stable word – group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning. † The definition clearly suggests that the degree of semantic change in a phraseological unit may vary.In actual fact the semantic change may affect either the whole word – group or only one of its components. Thus, according to the semantic s tructure , verbal idioms are divided into two groups: a) idioms with completely transferred meaning, e. g: 1) To skate on the ice – Coll. To do something dangerous 2) To wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve – Not fml. To allow other people to know what one is feeling; show one’s emotions 3) To have one’s heart in one’s boots – Coll. To feel discouraged or fearful 4) To have one’s heart in one’s mouth – To feel afraid or anxious, e. . when waiting for something to happen 5) To make a mountain out of a molehill – to worry about or become excited about matters that are not really important at all b) idioms with partially transferred meaning in which one of the components preserves its current meaning, the other is used in a transferred meaning, e. g: 1) To break new ground – to do something new, make a discovery 2) To change horses in midstream – Not fml. To change one’s opinion in midd le of something, esp. to decide to support the opposite or a different side 3) To know one’s onions – Coll.To know properly all the information, facts, etc. , concerned with one’s work; be experienced 4) To save one’s skin – Coll. To escape or help someone to escape from a danger Some of the verbal idioms are clearly hyperbolic, for example: 1) Eat out of smb’s hand – Not fml. To have ( a person) in one’s power so that he will do whatever one wishes, esp. because he admires one: Then, having had the fans eating out of his hand he admitted: â€Å"I didn’t enjoy it. I don’t consider myself in show business after just one professional act†. 2) Flog a dead horse – Coll.To keep trying to get satisfaction from something that cannot or can no longer give it : You are flogging a dead horse by asking him to lend you money – he hasn’t even got enough for himself. The idiom refers to a person who beats a horse to make it go even though it is dead, thus to doing something that is completely useless. In many verbal hyperbolic idioms, including borrowed ones , there aren’t corresponding word – combinations and they are based not on real, but imaginary situation. Etymological research provides an opportunity to throw some light on the rigin of some idioms, and then to establish its metaphorical character. So, an idiom â€Å"give smb. the cold shoulder – to be unfriendly to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or meet him, usually because one is angry , offended †. Unfriendly is not related to people’s shoulder. It means to behave towards someone in a way that is not at all friendly, sometimes for reasons that this person does not understand. Metaphorical character of verbal idioms has been established by comparing the components of verbal idioms with the same words outside the idiom, e. : 1) Hitch one’s wagon to a star – Lit. To have noble or morally improving aims or desires: He was a boy from a poor family who had hitched his wagon to a star and was determined to get a good education for himself. 2) Twist round one’s little finger – Coll. To have the ability to persuade ( a person) to do exactly as one wants : She’ll have no problem getting permission to go on holiday with a friend because she can twist her father round her little finger. Metonomical transformations occur much less in verbal idioms, than metaphorical ones, e. g: 1) Get one’s hand in – Not fml.To obtain or keep one’s skill in a particular activity by practicing it: If you are reasonably clever it won’t take you long to get your hand in at cards. 2) Make a clean breast of smth. – Not fml. To admit to something ; confess: â€Å" Mrs. Lyons, â€Å" said I †¦ â€Å" you are taking a very great responsibility and putting yourself in a very false position by not making an absolutely clean breast of all that you know†. ( Conan Doyle) . From the semantic point of view English verbal idioms may express: 1) Success, happiness, luck 2) Emotions and feelings 3) Relations between people 4) Behaviour 5) Intellect ) Death 7) Features of different phenomena Success, happiness, luck It is known that human life is not cakes and ale as a person has to meet a lot of hardships, which he has to overcome on his way to success. This idea is rendered by such verbal idioms as: 1) To carry the day – Rather rhet. To win in a competition, argument, etc. ; be successful in one’s efforts 2) To be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth – Not fml. To have wealthy parents; be born into a rich family 3) To kill two birds with one stone – to fulfill two purposes with one action 4) To set the Thames on fire – Not fml.To do something wonderful that causes much excitement and gains a wide reputation 5) To gain ground – to advance, make p rogress; become more important or powerful Emotions, feelings 1) To jump out of one’s skin – Coll. To show or have feelings of great shock, fear, or surprise , esp. by moving very suddenly 2) To hang one’s hand – to feel ashamed about something; feel or look guilty, sorry 3) To take it on the chin – ?oll. To suffer ( a misfortune , disappointment) with courage 4) To break smb’s heart – to make or become very sad 5) To have butterflies in one’s stomach – Coll. To feel nervous, anxious, etc. , esp. hen waiting for something Relations between people 1) To be on a friendly footing with somebody – to behave towards or deal with each other in a friendly way 2) To greet somebody with open arms – Not fml. To welcome somebody in a generous way 3) To give somebody the cold shoulder – Coll. To be unfriendly to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or meet him, usually because one is angry , offended †. 4) To look down one’s nose at somebody – Not fml. To regard somebody or someone with scorn or dislike 5) To rub someone’s nose in it – Not fml. To keep on reminding someone about something he has done wrong, esp. n an unkind manner Behaviour 1) To hold one’s head high – to act proudly or bravely, in front of people, esp. when one has suffered misfortune 2) To put one’s foot down – Coll. To be firm in one’s purpose or desires , e. g. not to allow another person to do something 3) To keep one’s hair on – Coll. To keep calm; not become angry, excited, etc. 4) To keep one’s chin up – Coll. Not to show feelings of fear, sadness, etc. , when faced with disappointments, worries, or difficulties 5) To behave like a bear with a sore head – Coll. To behave impatiently, in a bad – tempered way Intellect ) To have an old head on young shoulders – Rather old–fash. To have the wisd om, judgment, etc. , that is ordinarily found only in an older and more experienced person 2) To rack one’s brains – Not fml. To think hard about something, esp. to try and work out the answer to a difficult problem 3) To have a level head – Not fml. To be calm, sensible and able to judge well, esp. in difficult situations 4) To have one’s head screwed on the right way – Not fml. To be sensible; not silly Death 1) To give up the ghost – Coll. To die ; to stop putting any effort into doing something 2) To be on one’s last legs – Coll.About to die or to fall down from tiredness or illness 3) To go the way of all flesh- Pomp. To die 4) To be called to one’s eternal rest – Euph. To die 5) To kiss the dust – Coll. To die or become ill, or to stop making or being useful 6) To turn up one’s toes – Coll, humor. To die 7) To pay the debt of nature – Old-fash, rather rhet. To die Failure 1) To bu rn one’s fingers – Not fml. To suffer from something that one has done or been concerned with, esp. because one failed to consider the possible results 2) To come a cropper – Coll. To fall badly or heavily, e. . from a horse; to suffer failure or sudden misfortune 3) To be on one’s bones – to be in a difficult situation 4) To get into hot water – Coll. To fall in trouble 5) To get off on the wrong foot – Not fml. To begin something badly Risk 1) To carry( or take) one’s life in one’s hands – to risk one’s life 2) To skate on thin ice – to put oneself in a dangerous position; to take risks 3) To send to his long account – Euph, old-fash. To kill someone 4) To play with fire – Not fml. To take risks, esp. when these are foolish and unnecessary 5) To put all one’s eggs in one basket – Not fml.To allow all one’s hopes for the future to depend on one event or person; to risk all one’s money, time, interest, etc. in one business or effort 6) To risk one’s neck – Not fml. To take a great risk in doing something Deception 1) To hand smb. a lemon – to cheat, deceive somebody 2) To throw dust in someone’s eyes – Coll. To confuse someone or take his attention away from something that one does not wish him to see or know about 3) To play cat and mouse with – Not fml. To confuse someone unintentionally; deceive someone, esp. by keeping him from realizing what is actually happening to him 4) To pull one’s leg – Coll.To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. by trying to make him believe something that is not true 5) To make a fool of smb. – Not fml. To cause oneself to appear stupid or foolish Euphemism plays an important role in the creation of idiomatic synonyms among verbal phraseological units. For instance synonyms of the verb to die are very numerous: 1) To breathe oneâ€℠¢s last – Rather rhet. To die 2) To give up the ghost – Coll. To die 3) To join the great majority – Old-fash, euph. To die 4) To pay the debt of nature – Old-fash, rather rhet. To die 5) To turn up one’s toes – Coll, humor.To die Another example is the synonyms of the verb to irritate, to annoy : 1) To get smb’s goat – Coll. To cause someone much annoyance 2) To make smb’s blood boil – Not fml. To cause someone to be angry 3) To rub the wrong way – Coll. To annoy or cause offence to a person According to Professor A. V. Koonin verbal idioms are divided into non-comparative and comparative idioms. Non–comparative verbal idioms are phraseological units with subordinate or coordinative structure. The number of verbal idioms with coordinative structure is very few. Their characteristic feature is the two-term structure.In phraseology there are two types of coordinative connections: connective – c oordinative and separative – coordinative connection. Connective – coordinative connection : Verbal idioms of this type are usually pairs of synonymous idioms: 1) Bill and coo – Not fml. , rather old-fash. To show love in a playful way, esp. by kissing and whispering to each other: He took his girlfriend home after the party and they stayed in the car billing and cooing for a long time before she went into her house. 2) Hum and haw – Coll. To speak without saying exactly what one means , e. g. hen one needs more time to consider a matter: He always hums and haws before taking a firm decision. Separative – coordinative connection: There are very few verbal idioms of this type. They include such idioms as: 1) Sink or swim – Not fml. To be safe , succeed, etc. , or suffer complete failure or loss: He has refused to give us any more help, and has left us to sink and swim by our own efforts. 2) Stand or fall – to be completely dependent on ( a principle, the result of uncertain situation, etc. ) for one’s continued existence, good fortune, etc. : We stand or fall by our belief in free speech.Idioms with subordinate structure can have the objective or the objective – adverbial functions. Verbal idioms, expressing objective relations, may have different structures. The simplest form is a combination of a verb with a noun. Below are given examples: 1) Eat crow – Coll. To be forced to change what one has said, admit that one was wrong , etc. , esp. in order to appear more humble: I was cheered up when a letter arrived from Luria that the situation might be smoothed over if we appeared to eat crow. ( James D. Watson) 2) Raise Cain – Coll. To make a noise or trouble, esp. y complaining or arguing: Somewhere to the left of me Sebastian and Mulcaster were raising Cain. Sebastian †¦. seemed in a frenzy and was pounding the door, and shouting†¦( Evelyn Waugh) Nouns can be used both with def inite and indefinite articles: 1) Bear a cross – Not fml. To support or tolerate a heavy weight of sorrow, inconvenience, suffering, etc. : The poor woman has to bear a cross – her husband is too ill to work. 2) Drop a brick – Coll. To make a mistake, esp. to do or say something wrong or unsuitable in a particular situation: I was dismissed from my job because I had dropped a few bricks in front of some important customers.Many verbal idioms, consisting of a noun , which have the forms of singular and plural numbers are denoted by their real phenomena. For example: 1) Keep one’s head above water – Not fml. To keep out of debt : I need 50$ this month to keep my head above water. 2) Set one’s cap at smb. – Coll, rather old- fash. To try to make ( a man) notice her, esp. in order to make him marry her: They had a chauffeur who was about 18 or 19 and undoubtedly set her cap at him and he became her boyfriend. Plural number of nouns is oft en used in one of the components of phraseological units.So, the word â€Å"spurs† in an idiom† win one’s spurs – to show one’s true ability or courage for the first time; gain fame † can be used only in the plural form, because when a man was made a knight , the king would give him not one , but a pair of golden spurs. There are several examples of verbal idioms, in which noun is used only in plural form, because they stand for the action, carried out not by one person or entity designated by them, e. g: 1) Be on pins and needles – Not fml. To be in a state of excitement and anxiety: He was on pins and needles while he was answering my questions . 2) Burn one’s fingers – Not fml.To suffer from something that one has done or been concerned with, esp. because one failed to consider the possible results: â€Å" Anyone who wants to leave this nice warm market , and go out into the blizzard , will get his fingers burnt. 3) Dr aw in one’s horns – Coll . To hold back or control one’s actions, e. g. to spend less money : And if we don’t get some extra money from somewhere we shall have to draw our horns in pretty sharply. ( Iris Murdoch) In some verbal idioms the plural number of a noun does not depend on the number of a person, carrying out the action, denoted by this idioms, it epends on the number of objects. Sometimes in idioms, where the action is carried out by several people, the plural form is not definitively established, and the idiom also occurs in the singular. This phenomenon has been observed in such idiom, as: 1) Cut off one’s nose to spite one’s face – Coll. To do something because of anger, hurt pride, etc. , that harms oneself or one’s own interests: By refusing to work they are cutting off their noses to spite their faces because the company will close down.There are several examples of verbal idioms, in which the noun is always used only in singular form, not depending on the number of persons, carrying out the action, indicated by the phraseological unit, e. g: 1) Carry a stiff upper lip – Not fml. Refusal to complain or show emotion or fear when faced with difficulty or danger; calmness: The old general praised the boys for keeping a stiff upper lip in time of trouble. 2) Cook smb’s goose – Coll. To ruin the chances of success of a person, organization, etc. : My boyfriend has cooked his goose with me – I don’t want to see him again. ) Not to have a leg to stand on – Not fml. To have no good defence for one’s actions or opinions: After the results of the test had shown that his plan would not work, he hadn’t a leg to stand on. Several verbal idioms are used only in the negative forms: 1) Not to see a wood for the trees – not to have a clear and complete understanding of something because of the great number of small and unimportant details that d emand one’s attention: The main purpose of education is too often forgotten – because of all the present arguments about different types of schools we are in danger of not seeing the wood for the trees. ) Not to know whether one is on one’s head or one’s heels – Coll. To be in a very uncertain and confused state : not to know what to do next : At the end of a Saturday morning when his shop was very busy the poor shopkeeper didn’t know whether he was on his head or his heels. There are a lot of verbal idioms in English mostly with prepositions expressing objective – adverbial relations. E. g: 1) Have a millstone round one’s neck – to cause much and continuous trouble to someone: You know how selfish your brother is – if he comes to live with us he ‘ll be a millstone round our neck. ) Beat ( knock or run) one’s head against a brick (or stone) wall – Coll. To try to do or obtain something difficul t with very little hope of success: It is like knocking your head against a brick wall to try to keep the house tidy while the children are at home from school. Non – prepositional idioms of this type are very few: 1) Hold one’s head high – to act proudly or bravely, in front of people, esp. when one has suffered misfortune: I have boasted in my youth and held my head high and gone on my way careless of consequences†¦( Evelyn Waugh) 2) Put one’s foot down – Coll. . To be firm in one’s purpose or desires, e. g. not to allow ( another person) to do something 2. To increase speed when driving a vehicle, esp. a car: I don’t like driving fast , so I get really afraid when he puts his foot down. Alternants are pronouns – â€Å" one, one’s, oneself, somebody, smb’s, something â€Å" , which usually make up an idiom. Alternants can be replaced by other pronouns, nouns or word – combinations in accordance wit h the requirements of the speech situation.The pronoun â€Å" one â€Å" is usually replaced by one of the personal pronouns in the objective case, the pronoun â€Å" one’s â€Å"- by one of the possessive pronouns, the pronoun â€Å" oneself â€Å" – by one of the reflexive pronouns, the pronoun â€Å" somebody â€Å" – by one of the personal pronouns, a noun or a variable word – combination, the pronoun â€Å" smb’s â€Å" – by one of the possessive pronouns, a noun in a genitive case , the pronoun â€Å" something â€Å" – by a noun, a variable word – combination, or by a sentence . Below are given several examples , which illustrate different uses of alternants: ) Take one’s time – not to hurry; be slow and careful: Don’t rush . Just take your time and tell me clearly what happened. 2) Take oneself in hand – to take ( a person or thing ) under one’s control, esp. to try to make improvements: You ‘ve been very badly behaved recently. I can see I shall have to take you in hand. 3) Get smb. ’s goat – Coll. To cause someone much annoyance: The way he refuses to admit his mistakes gets my goat. 4) Give smb. the cold shoulder – Coll. To be unfriendly to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or meet him, usually because one is angry , offendedIndefinite pronoun â€Å" smth. â€Å" is often replaced by a noun, a substantive word – combination or less subordinate clauses: 1) Know smth. from A to Z ( or like a palm of one’s hand) – Not fml. To know from the beginning to the end: thoroughly and completely : The teacher knew his subject from A to Z. Indefinite – personal pronoun â€Å" one’s â€Å" is used in the case , when the action is performed by a particular person , directed to him , for example: 1) Put one’s tail between one’s legs – Not fml. To put someone in a sad and unh appy manner.Replacing the pronoun â€Å" one’s â€Å" with a pronoun â€Å" smb’s â€Å" in such idiom is impossible. The pronoun â€Å" one’s† is also used in those verbal idioms, which represent the action of a particular person, directed to something, for example: 1) Play one’s cards right – Coll. To act in a correct or clever way in order to gain an advantage in a particular situation: If you play your cards right you may get an increase in pay . The pronoun â€Å" one’s† can be used in idioms, denoting the state of a particular person or object, for example: 1) Be on one’s last legs – Coll.To die or to fall down from tiredness or illness; ( of an organization) close to ruin; about to stop operating: Godspell was on its last legs until the influx of tourists postponed its demise until October. The pronoun â€Å" smb’s† is also used in such cases, when the act , done by one person, directed to another person, for example: 1) Pull smb’s leg – Coll. To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. by trying to make him believe something that is not true: Many people have phoned in to report seeing the kangaroo†¦ â€Å" We thought people were pulling our legs when they first reported seeing him, â€Å" a police spokesman said yesterday.Usefulness of such a distinction, especially from the lexicographic point of view , one can see from the following examples: 1) Keep one’s nose to the grindstone – Coll. To keep working, esp. hard and without a rest Keep smb’s nose to the grindstone – Coll. To make somebody work without a rest 2) Stay one’s hand – Rather old- fash. To stop or delay from taking an action Stay smb’s hand – Rather old- fash. To stop or delay someone from taking an action. Predicative verbal idioms occur not only among substantives, but also among verbal idioms. They have both completely and partially transferred meaning.Below are given several examples of predicative verbal idioms: 1) Bite off more than one can chew – Not fml. To try to do too much or something that is too difficult: John bit off more than he could chew when he decided to have a race with the best runner in the school. There is a comparative subordinate clause . in the second part of phraseological unit. 2) Know how many beans make five, know what o’clock it is, know what is what – Not fml. To understand what the situation is or how a system works: He ‘s a man who knows what’s what in the world of business – he’s sure to get rich.Predicative verbal idioms are not only characterized by an antecedent, expressed in one word, – know, see, strike, watch, but an antecedent expressed in a combination, – bite off more, know or see (on) which side, see or watch how (or which way). Some of above mentioned idioms have one literal meaning , as thei r antecedent retains its literal meaning, for example â€Å" watch how the cat jumps† , but it can also be completely transferred , for example â€Å" bite off more than one can chew, strike while the iron is hot†.Thus, predicative verbal idioms are characterized by semantic complexity of two types: first is a combination of non transferred antecedent with transferred relative clause, second is a combination of both transferred antecedent and transferred relative clause. Predicative verbal idioms have a characteristic expressive – evaluative function. Morphological features of non- comparative verbal idioms: Words in phraseological units have different features compared with the same word outside a phraseological unit, e. g: Pull smb’s leg – Coll. To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. y trying to make him believe smth. that is not true: Many people have phoned in to report seeing the kangaroo †¦Ã¢â‚¬  We thought people were pulling our legs when they first reported seeing him , â€Å" a police spokesman said yesterday. The verb of this idiom is used in the following forms: Present Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous, Past Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect ( Passive Voice). Undoubtedly, the above mentioned forms are the commonest . Thus, the verb in this idiom is used predominantly in several forms, while as a separate word the verb â€Å"pull† can be used in all forms.The imperative mood is possible, but it occurs in negative forms: Don’t pull my leg. You went to the theatre (A. J. Cronin). In several verbal idioms verbs are used only in the passive voice: 1) Be gathered to one’s fathers – euph. To die 2) Be thrown on one’s beam-end – Coll. To be in a difficult situation, esp. one in which one has no money : Many organizations are on their beam ends at the moment because of a lack of public support. But there are idioms which are never used in the passive voice : 1) Make bricks without straw – Rather old – fash.To attempt to do or make something without having the necessary materials 2) Steal a march on smb. – to gain an advantage over someone by doing something earlier than expected : The government had intended to limit the wage increases of all workers to a reasonable amount , but several trade unions stole a march on them by receiving very large increases before the new laws came into existence. Alliteration is widely used in verbal idioms. There can be repetition between two sounds and they are divided into three groups: 1) In the first and the last lexemes: 1. Burn one’s boats – Coll.To go so far in a course of action that one cannot turn back: I changed my mind about giving up my job, but unfortunately I had burnt my boats by telling my boss that I was leaving. 2. Get smb’s goat – Coll. To cause someone much annoyance: The way he refuses to admit his mistakes gets my goa t. 2) In the last two lexemes : 1. Be on one’s last legs – Coll. To die or to fall down from tiredness or illness; ( of an organization) close to ruin; about to stop operating: Godspell was on its last legs until the influx of tourists postponed its demise until October. . Put one’s best foot forward – Coll. To be firm in one’s purpose or desires, e. g. not to allow to do something: When are they going to let Matt put his foot down and bring the twins back where they belong ? 3) In the lexemes, which occupy other positions in an idiom: 1. Keep one’s cards close to one’s chest – Coll. To be very secretive; not make known one’s advantages all at once : He had to keep his cards close to his chest in order to get the best possible contract. We come across repetition of three sounds very rarely, for example: ) Cut one’s coat according to one’s cloth – Coll. To remain within the limits of what one has or w hat one can afford, esp. when spending money: They have had another baby; They will have very little money and will have to cut their coat according to their cloth. 2) Make a mountain out of a molehill – to worry about or become excited about matters that are not really important at all: I’m sure he’ll give you the money back when he gets paid, so there’s no need to start making mountains out of a molehills.Comparative verbal phraseological units : The first components of comparative verbal idioms are used in their literal meaning, while other components are intensifiers and qualifiers, semantic differentiators of the first components. As comparative verbal idioms are not used in the passive voice, so they can’t be transformed into sentences, they are always phrasemes. These verbal idioms always have a subordinate structure. Comparative verbal idioms are divided into three groups from the semantic point of view: 1) Verbs of negative evaluation â₠¬â€œ hate, lie, swear ) Verbs of positive evaluation – fit, get on 3) Verbs of a neutral evaluation – drink, eat, feel, follow, sleep, speak, spread, talk, treat, work and so on. Attention should be paid to the predominance of verbs with a neutral evaluation. In verbal idioms with the verbs of positive and negative evaluation, the second component only emphasizes it: 1) Hate smb. like poison – to hate smb, very much: The general was more interested in his personal glory than in the comfort of the ordinary soldiers, and he was hated like poison by all his men. 2) Swear like a trooper – Coll, rather old-fash.To use bad language in an unrestrained manner: He swore like a trooper when I complained about his work. 3) Fit smb. like a glove – to fit ( a person) perfectly: It was clever of you to guess my size correctly – the new coat that you bought fits me like a glove. In comparative verbal idioms a second component is expressed by animal names, names of birds, fish and real or imaginative phenomena by which the basis of comparative idioms are expressed: 1) Die like a dog – Not fml. To die in conditions of great shame, pain, etc. : They were in prison for weeks without food and then died like dogs. ) Eat like a horse – Coll. To eat a great deal: †¦I am underweight and worry about it†¦ and although I eat like a horse , it doesn’t seem to help . 3) Fight like cat and dog – Coll. To quarrel or argue fiercely , esp. very often : Flood says : â€Å" We still love each other very much . But we fight like cat and dog. There are several comparative verbal idioms which refer to people: 1) Have a head like a sieve – Not fml. To be unable to remember things correctly or keep information in one’s mind : I was introduced to her twice, but I still can’t remember her name – I’ve got a head like a sieve.Several verbal idioms never refer to people, for example : 1) Se ll like hot cakes – Coll. To be bought or taken quickly, e. g. because of being very popular or cheap: Last year she contributed 40 pointings†¦Ã¢â‚¬  They sell like absolute hot cakes if you only ask 25$. 2) Spread like wildfire – to spread from one person to another very quickly: The news of his success spread like a wildfire among all his friends. Nature of meaning of idioms, including comparative verbal idioms, may vary depending on whether it applies to one object or more than one object. So, a verbal idiom â€Å" hate smb. like poison – to hate smb, very much. in the sentence â€Å" She hates him like poison. † It means that she mortally hates him, but he certainly didn’t hate her. His attitude towards her is specified in the context. Plurality of objects means mutual hatred. In all the above mentioned comparative verbal idioms , except the idioms with the verbs â€Å" feel â€Å" and â€Å" look† , the second component is a le xeme. In several comparative verbal idioms , as a second component, appears not a lexeme, but a combination of lexemes, for example: 1) Fight like cat and dog – Coll. To quarrel or argue fiercely , esp. very often : Flood says : â€Å" We still love each other very much .But we fight like cat and dog. 2) Drop smb. or smth. like a hot potato – to get rid of something dangerous, unmanted as quickly as possible: When he found out she had no money after all he dropped her like a hot potato. 3) Go ( go off or sell) like hot cakes – Coll. To be bought or taken quickly, e. g. because of being very popular or cheap: Last year she contributed 40 pointings†¦Ã¢â‚¬  They sell like absolute hot cakes if you only ask 25$. In some cases, the connection between the first component and combination of lexemes is non – motivated , for example: 1) Fight like Kilkenny cats – Not fml.To fight fiercely: Those two children will fight like Kilkenny cats if I leave t hem alone in the house. Referring to a story that some soldiers in the Irish town of Kilkenny once tied two cats together by their tails and made them fight. The fight was so fierce that all that was left of the cats was their tails. The fight lasted until the end of 19 century and led to a mutual destruction. Legend, being the basis for this expression, has been forgotten for a long time, which has created non motivation of the whole phrase in Modern English, since the expression has no meaning in literal sense.Conclusion After analyzing semantics and structure of verbal phraseological units , we come to the following conclusions: 1) Idioms, characterized by structural stability and completely or partially transferred meaning , are widely used in the language conducting expressiveness, colour to the thought expressed. The notion of idiomaticity represented by phraseology is of special significance for linguistic survey for it appears in many structural varieties and yields certain distinct patterns – some perhaps universal, others characteristic of one specific language only . ) There is a great difference between free word- groups and idioms. It is considered to be the most controversial problem in the field of phraseology. In an idiom words are not independent. They form set-expressions, in which neither words nor the order of words can be changed. Free word-groups are formed in the process of speech according to the standards of the language, while phraseological units exist in the language side by side with separate words. In a free word-group each of its constituents preserves its denotational meaning.In the case of phraseological units however the denotational meaning belongs to the word group as a single semantically inseparable unit. 3) The English language is extremely rich in verbal phraseological units. Verbal idioms belong to the class of nominative and nominative – communicative phraseological units, due to the fact that some of the m are word – combinations, while others can be both word – combinations and sentences. Verbal idioms can have completely or partially transferred meaning and they are divided into non – comparative and comparative idioms. ) The structure of the English verbal phraseological units is variegated. Word – groups and phraseological units possess not only the lexical meaning, but also the meaning conveyed mainly by the pattern of arrangement of their constituents. Not only the order , but also the substitution of one of the elements may lead to semantic differences or to entirely different phraseological units. 5) Free word – combinations can never be polysemantic, while there are polysemantic verbal phraseological units. 6) Among verbal phraseological units there are two – top units ( ) .The grammar centre of such units is the verb , the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the sem antic centre. These verbal phraseological units can be perfectly idiomatic as well. Bibliography 1. ?. : : ?.?. , 1986. 2. ?. . , 1973 3. ?. . , 2009. 4. ?. ?. . . , 1963 5. ?. ?. . , 2008. . ?. ?. , . , 1980 7. . . , 1983 8. ?. ?. ? . , 1971 9. ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , 1974 10. ?. ?. . , 1996 11. ?. ?.. . , 1987 12. ?. ?. . , 1998 13. ?. ?.. , 1966 14. Antrushina G. B. , Afanasyeva , O. V. , Morozova, N.N. English Lexicology. Moscow, 1985 15. Arnold I. V. The English word. Moscow, 1986 16. Ginzburg R. S. , Khidekel S. S. A course in Modern English Lexicology. Moscow, 1979 17. Koonin A . English Lexicology. Moscow, 1948 18. Makkai A. Idiom structure in English. The Hague , 1972 19. Minaeva L. English Lexicology and Lexicography. Moscow, 2007 20. Palmer . F. R. Semantics. A new outline , Moscow: 1982 Dictionaries 21. ?. , ?. . , 1975 22. ?. ?. – . , 1967 23. Longman dictionary of English idioms.Printed by Butler and T anner, LTD. London, 1984 24. Oxford dictionary. Oxford University Press, New York, 2007 CHAPTER ONE GENERAL OUTLINE OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS ( PROBLEMS, CLASSIFICATIONS, DEFINITIONS ) Idioms have always attracted the attention of linguists, literary critics, sociologists and philosophers. Enriching the literary language, representing a bright example of purity, accuracy of content and sharpness of language, idioms are of great importance in the treasury of culture and have become of genuine interest for linguists and researchers of various spheres of communication.If synonyms can be figuratively referred to as the tints and colours of the vocabulary, then phraseology is a kind of picture gallery in which are collected vivid and amusing sketches of the nation’s customs, traditions and prejudices, recollections of its past history, and fairy-tales. Being an inseparable part of the language, idioms have a special position within it. They represent what can probably be described a s the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary ( ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , 2008 ).The stock of words of the language consists not only of separate words , but also of set expressions, which alongside with separate words serve as means of expressing concepts. There exist two terms which are to denote set expressions: â€Å"idioms† and â€Å"phraseological units†. An idiom or idiomatic phrase, is often defined as a phrase, developing a meaning which cannot be readily analyzed into the several distinct ideas which would ordinarily be expressed by the words composing the phrase. It transcends the ordinary syntactical constructions and must be studied as grammatical unit, or entity ,in itself.On the other hand, â€Å"idiom† is a very broad term and includes all the peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of the language –its peculiar syntactical constructions, and other conventional practices of unusual character. The ter m â€Å"idiom† is widely used by western scholars, mainly English and American linguists. N. N. Amosov? defines phraseological units as units of fixed context, i. e. phrases with a specific sequence of certain lexical components and peculiar semantic relations between them. In these terms , phraseological units are classified into phrasemes and idioms.Phrasemes are binary phrases in which one of the components has a phraseologically bound meaning dependent on the other. Idioms as distinguished from phrasemes are characterized by integral meaning and idiomaticity of the whole word-group ( ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , , 2008 ). According to Rosemarie Glaser’s theory a phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations and may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text (Glaser R. 998:125). Glaser includes both word-lik e and sentence-like units in the phrasicon, terming word-like units â€Å"nominations†, which designate a phenomenon , an object, an action, a process or state, a property in the outside world, and sentence-like ones â€Å"propositions†, which designate a whole state of affairs in the outside world. She further subdivides nominations into idioms and non-idioms having transparent meanings, and including technical terms, cliches, etc. ( ?. , , 2009 ).Attempts have been made to approach phraseology in different ways. There is a divergence of opinions as to the nature and essential features of phraseological units, how to distinguish them from free word groups, how to define and how to classify them. This is probably the most discussed and one of the most important problems in the field of phraseology. The complexity of the problem may be largely accounted for by the fact that the borderline between free word-groups and phraseological units is not clearly defined.The s o –called free word-groups are but relatively free as collocability of member-words is fundamentally delimited by their lexical and grammatical valency which makes at least some of them very close to set-phrases. Phraseological units are but comparatively stable and semantically inseparable. Between the extremes of complete motivation and variability of member-words and lack of motivation combined with complete stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure there are innumerable borderline cases. However, the existing terms, e. g. et-phrases, idioms, word-equivalents, reflect to a certain extent the main debatable issues of phraseology which centre in the divergent views concerning the nature and essential features of phraseological units as distinguished from the so-called free word-groups. The term â€Å"set-phrase† implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups. The t erm â€Å"idiom† generally implies that the essential feature of linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity or lack of motivation.This term habitually used by English and American linguists is very often treated as synonymous with the term â€Å"phraseological unit†. The term â€Å"word-equivalent† stresses not only semantic but also functional inseparability of certain word-groups, their aptness to function in speech as single words. The criterion of stability of lexical components and idiomaticity of word-groups are viewed as not necessarily coexisting in phraseological units. It is argued that stability of lexical components does not presuppose lack of motivation.It follows that stability and idiomaticity are regarded as two different aspects of word-groups. Stability is an essential feature of set-phrases both motivated and non-motivated. Idiomaticity is a distinguishing feature of phraseological units or idioms which comprise both stable set-phras es and variable word-groups. The two features are not mutually exclusive and may be overlapping, but are not interdependent. Word-groups are structurally complex units consisting of formally separable elements, which are functionally equivalent to separate words.So they are independent parts of the sentence. Whereas in an idiom words are not independent. They form set-expressions, in which neither words nor the order of words can be changed. Free word-groups are formed in the process of speech according to the standards of the language, while phraseological units exist in the language side by side with separate words. In a free word-group each of its constituents preserves its denotational meaning. In the case of phraseological units however the denotational meaning belongs to the word group as a single semantically inseparable unit.It’s worth mentioning that idiom is a complex phenomenon with a number of features, which can therefore be approached from different points of vi ew. Hence, there exist a considerable number of different classification systems devised by different scholars and based upon different principles. The oldest principle for classifying idioms is based on their original content and is known as â€Å"thematic† (this term however is not universally accepted). On this principle, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. The word â€Å"source† refers to the particular sphere of human activity, of life, of nature.The â€Å"thematic† principle of classifying idioms has a real merit, but it does not take into consideration the linguistic features of the idioms. The first classification system, which was based on semantic principle, was suggested by acad. V. V. Vinogradov, who developed some points first advanced by the Swiss scientist Charles Bally. Acad. V. V. Vinogradov spoke of the semantic change in idioms as a â€Å"meaning resulting from a peculiar chemical combination of words†. He descri bed idioms as lexical complexes which cannot be freely made up in speech, but are reproduced as ready-made units.The meaning of such expressions as distinguished from the meaning of free combinations is idiomatic. The classification is based on the motivation of the unit. According to the degree of idiomatic meaning of various groups of idioms ,V. V. Vinogradov classified them as follows ( Arnold V. , The English Word, 1986 ) : Phraseological fusions – units whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of their component parts, the meaning of phraseological fusions is unmotivated at the present stage of language development. The meaning of the components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole.The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based , has lost its clarity and is obscure. Phraseological unities – units with a completely changed meaning. They are motivated units or, putting it another way , the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from th e meanings of constituent parts. The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based, is clear and transparent. Phraseological combinations – traditional units which are not only motivated, but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used figuratively. Prof.Smirnitsky considers a phraseological unit to be similar to the word because of the idiomatic relationships between its parts resulting in semantic unity and permitting its introduction into speech as something complete. He differentiated three classes of stereotyped phrases ( ?. ?. , , 2008 ) : 1) Traditional phrases 2) Phraseological combinations 3) Idioms Traditional phrases, which are characterized by reproducibility, are not regarded as word-equivalents. They are usual collocations whose inner form is transparent. They are distinguished as follows: 1)Verbal ) Substantive 3) Adjectival 4) Adverbial 5) Interjectional Smirnitsky’s notion of word-equivalence actually allows another p erspective on phraseological units too. Namely, proceeding from the classification of words into derivatives and compounds, the linguist seeks to find similar structural and semantic features in phraseological units as well, correspondingly singling out units with one semantic centre(one summit units) on the one hand, which he compared with derived words, and with two or more semantic centres (two summit and multi-summit units), on the other, which he compared with compound words.Each of the two groups of this structural – semantic classification is further subdivided according to the part of speech to which t